So here is the big one, what is gravity? We think it is something to do with the electromagnetic spectrum, but Einstein had a simpler explaination.
But before we get to that, we must understand how energy moves.
To to that we are looking at photosynthesis. Why? Because we need to get photons into the system, but we do not know whether this can happen directly into molecules, or atoms.
The key to photosynthesis, (the capture of sunlight and using it to build malecules, is something called ATP.
In plants, light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts and use light energy to synthesize ATP and NADPH. (article)
You may be saying to yourself, photosynthesis has nothing to do with nuclear physics, and my premis, the title of this book, Protons and Neutrons are Atoms, and you could be right, but until we understand teh atom, can we understand science. You could also say, plants, the products of photosynthesis, are not intelligent life, so do not concern us. However, photosynthesis is only one of the ways of converting sunlight, (photons) into energy.
The rate of energy capture by photosynthesis is immense, approximately 100 terawatts,[3] which is about six times larger than the power consumption of human civilization.[4]
We can use the arsenic/boron system to capture photons, and make electricity. Hooked up to a computer we have intelligent life, which can even move itself around independently, and possibly even repair and replicate itself.
Although organisms which first used photosynthesis appeared about 2,500 million years ago, according to scientists, there is no absolute proof that they evolved, and they could have been designed by a superior intelligence. Today, even man has the capacity to do that. (next)
Energy from plants begins with the sun.
In plants, light-dependent reactions occur in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts and use light energy to synthesize ATP and NADPH. The light-dependent reaction has two forms: cyclic and non-cyclic. In the non-cyclic reaction, the photons are captured in the light-harvesting antenna complexes of photosystem II by chlorophyll and other accessory pigments (see diagram at right). When a chlorophyll molecule at the core of the photosystem II reaction center obtains sufficient excitation energy from the adjacent antenna pigments, an electron is transferred to the primary electron-acceptor molecule, pheophytin, through a process called photoinduced charge separation. These electrons are shuttled through an electron transport chain, the so-called Z-scheme shown in the diagram, that initially functions to generate a chemiosmotic potential across the membrane. An ATP synthase enzyme uses the chemiosmotic potential to make ATP during photophosphorylation, whereas NADPH is a product of the terminal redox reaction in the Z-scheme. The electron enters a chlorophyll molecule in Photosystem I. The electron is excited due to the light absorbed by the photosystem. A second electron carrier accepts the electron, which again is passed down lowering energies of electron acceptors. The energy created by the electron acceptors is used to move hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane into the lumen. The electron is used to reduce the co-enzyme NADP, which has functions in the light-independent reaction. The cyclic reaction is similar to that of the non-cyclic, but differs in the form that it generates only ATP, and no reduced NADP (NADPH) is created. The cyclic reaction takes place only at photosystem I. Once the electron is displaced from the photosystem, the electron is passed down the electron acceptor molecules and returns to photosystem I, from where it was emitted, hence the name cyclic reaction.
Main article: Light-dependent reactions
The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved about 3,500 million years ago, early in the evolutionary history of life, when all forms of life on Earth were microorganisms and the atmosphere had much more carbon dioxide. They most likely used hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water.[7] Cyanobacteria appeared later, around 3,000 million years ago, and drastically changed the Earth when they began to oxygenate the atmosphere, beginning about 2,400 million years ago.[8] This new atmosphere allowed the evolution of complex life such as protists. Eventually, no later than a billion years ago, one of these protists formed a symbiotic relationship with a cyanobacterium, producing the ancestor of many plants and algae.[9] The chloroplasts in modern plants are the descendants of these ancient symbiotic cyanobacteria.[10]